Research
on various Vitamins
If
you eat a healthy diet, do you need to take vitamins?
Not long ago, the answer from most experts would have been a resounding "no".
Today, though, there's good evidence that taking a daily multivitamin makes
sense for most adults
Harvard School of Public Health.
B1 - B2 - B3 - B5 - B6 - B12 - B9 (Folic Acid)- C & E
Vitamin
B1 (Thiamine):
" A mood-mending vitamin"
Researchers from the department of psychology at the University
of Wales in Swansea, together with the Basel, Switzerland-based Hoffman-LaRoche
pharmaceutical company, recently put these questions to the test. One hundred
twenty healthy female college students were given thiamine, or a placebo. At
the beginning of the study all but one volunteer had normal thiamine levels
as measured by the standard erythrocyte transketolase test.
Despite their ostensibly normal nutritional status, after two
months the students who took extra thiamine more than doubled their scores on
the clear-headedness and mood subclasses of the bipolar Profile of
Mood States (POMS) psychological test. Students treated with placebo showed
no change. Those taking thiamine also increased their quickness on a
reaction-time test. Again, the placebo group was unchanged. Finally,
improvement also occurred on POMS subscales that measured if a participant felt
confident, composed or elated. University of Wales in Swansea,
together with the Basel, Switzerland-based Hoffman-LaRoche pharmaceutical company,
When patients with evidence of thiamine deficiency were supplemented, their
behavior improved. Lonsdale D, Shamberger R, Am J Chin Nutr 33(2):205-1
1, 1980.
A 1957 study found that
thiamine deficiency was associated with increased hypochondriasis, depression
and hysteria scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
test (MMPI).Brozek J. Psychological effects of thiamine restriction and
deprivation in normal young men. Am J Clin Nutr 1957;5:109-18.
Thiamin
(also spelled thiamine) is a water-soluble B-complex vitamin, previously known
as vitamin B1 or aneurine
Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) is a required coenzyme for a small number of very
important enzymes. Thiamin deficiency affects the cardiovascular, nervous,
muscular, and gastrointestinal systems.
Reviewed by: Charles K. Singleton, Ph.D.- Professor - Department of Biological
Sciences - Vanderbilt University
Interestingly, vitamin deficiencies are commonly associated with psychological
symptoms (irritability, easy frustration, anger, etc.) that
may interfere with the normal athlete-coach relationship, further
complicating the potential for effective athletic training. Dan Benardot, Ph.D.,
R.D., College of Health and Human Sciences Atlanta, Georgia
Thiamine (Vitamin B-1) is
established as a circulatory enhancer and for maintaining muscle tone
of the heart, stomach and intestines. Recent studies implicate
thiamine in cognitive dysfunction. On a group of Alzheimer's patients
who were not deficient in B-1, Mimori and colleagues at the Hiroshima University
School of Medicine in Japan found that oral supplementation of a thiamine
derivative had a mild beneficial effect on emotional as well as intellectual
functions. This is an important clue for researchers investigating
the biological origins of Alzheimer's Disease.
Riboflavin
is a water-soluble B-complex vitamin, also known as vitamin B2.
Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions - Living organisms derive most of their
energy from oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, which are processes involving
the transfer of electrons.. Flavins are critical for the metabolism of carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins.
Nutrient Interactions:B-complex vitamins: Because flavoproteins are involved
in the metabolism of several other vitamins (vitamin B6, niacin, and folic acid),
severe riboflavin deficiency may impact many enzyme systems.
Iron: Riboflavin deficiency alters iron metabolism.
Toxicity -No toxic or adverse effects of high riboflavin intake in humans are
known.
Reviewed by: Donald B. McCormick, Ph.D. F. E. Callaway Professor, Emeritus
- Department of Biochemistry - Emory University School of Medicine
Supplementation
may be helpful for the symptoms of hyperactivity, deteriorating school
performance, perceptual changes and inability to acquire or maintain social
relationships. Hoffer, A, Vitamin B3 Dependent Child, Schizophrenia,
3:107-113, 1971.
Niacin
is a water-soluble vitamin, also known as vitamin B3. The term niacin refers
to nicotinic acid and nicotinamide, which are both used by the body to form
the coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phospate (NADP). Neither form is related to the nicotine found
in tobacco, although their names are similar.
Functions:: Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions - Living organisms derive
most of their energy from oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, which are processes
involving the transfer of electrons. As many as 200 enzymes require the niacin
coenzymes, NAD and NADP, mainly to accept or donate electrons for redox reactions.
Deficiency: Severe deficiency result in pellagra.The most common symptoms
of niacin deficiency involve the skin, digestive system, and the nervous system.
The symptoms of pellagra were commonly referred to as the four D's: dermatitis,
diarrhea, dementia, and death. Neurologic symptoms include headache, apathy,
fatigue, depression, disorientation, and memory loss. If untreated, pellagra
is ultimately fatal. Niacin deficiency or pellagra may result from inadequate
dietary intake of niacin and/or tryptophan.Other nutrient deficiencies may also
contribute to the development of niacin deficiency.
Reviewed by Elaine L. Jacobson, Ph.D. Professor Department of Pharmacology
and Toxicology and Arizona Cancer Center- University of Arizona
Pantothenic
acid, also known as vitamin B5, is essential to all forms of life. Pantothenic
acid is found throughout living cells in the form of coenzyme A (CoA), a vital
coenzyme in numerous chemical reactions.
FUNCTION: Coenzyme A- Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A (CoA), an
essential coenzyme in a variety of reactions that sustain life. CoA is required
for chemical reactions that generate energy from food (fat,
carbohydrates, and proteins). The synthesis of essential fats, cholesterol,
and steroid hormones requires CoA, as does the synthesis of the neurotransmitter,
acetylcholine, and the hormone, melatonin.
Acyl-carrier protein - The acyl-carrier protein requires pantothenic acid in
the form of 4'-phosphopantetheine for its activity as an enzyme . Both CoA and
the acyl-carrier protein are required for the synthesis of fatty acids. Fatty
acids are a component of some lipids, which are fat molecules essential
for normal physiological function. Among these essential fats are sphingolipids,
which are a component of the myelin sheath that enhances nerve transmission,
and phospholipids in cell embranes.:
Reviewed by: Nora Plesofsky, Ph.D. Research Assistant Professor- College
of Biological Sciences University of Minnesota -
Pyridoxine
(vitamin B6): Was found to be more effective than methylphenidate (Ritalin)
in treating a group of hyperactive children in a double-blind, crossover
study. A Preliminary Study of the Effect of Pyridoxine Administration to a Subgroup
of Hyperkinetic children: A Double-blind, crossover Comparison with Methylphenidate,
Coleman, et al, Bid. Psychiatry, Vol. 14, No. 5, 1979, pp. 741-751.
When B6 Pyridoxine was given to hyperactive children with low blood
serotonin levels, their hyperactivity disappeared and serotonin levels returned
to normal. The effect of pyridoxine hydrochloride on blood serotonin
and pyridoxal phosphate contents in hyperactive children, Pediatrics, 55:437-41,
1975.
Researchers studied the effects of folate and vitamins B12 and B6 on cognition
and mood in 211 healthy younger, middle-aged and older women. The researchers
studied the effects of supplementation with B vitamins and dietary intake. Subjects
took either a placebo or 750 mcg of folate, 15 mcg of vitamin B12, and 75 mg
of vitamin B6 daily for 35 days. The study authors also used a retrospective,
self-report, quantified food frequency questionnaire to assess dietary intake
of these vitamins. The subjects were given standardized tests of cognitive function,
memory, verbal ability, and self-report mood measures, both before and after
supplementation.
The study results indicated that supplementation with folate, vitamin
B12 and B6 could significantly improve memory performance in all age groups
tested. In addition, the amount of these B vitamins consumed in the
diet was linked to the speed subjects could process information, recall,
and recognition, as well as verbal ability, particularly in the younger
women. In fact, 29% of the younger women had dietary intakes of folate below
recommended levels and 20% of the women had vitamin B12 below desired levels.
Bryan J, Calvaresi E, Hughes D. Short-term Folate, Vitamin B-12 or Vitamin
B-6 Supplementation Slightly Affects Memory Performance but Not Mood in Women
of Various Ages. Journal of Nutrition. 2002;132(6):1345-1356.
Vitamin
B6 is a water-soluble vitamin that was first isolated in the 1930's.
FUNCTION:Vitamin B6 must be obtained from the diet because humans cannot
synthesize it, and the coenzyme, PLP plays a vital role
in the function of approximately 100 enzymes that catalyze essential chemical
reactions in the human body. Nervous system function:The synthesis of
the neurotransmitter, serotonin, from the amino acid, tryptophan, in
the brain is catalyzed by a PLP-dependent enzyme. Other neurotransmitters
such as dopamine, norepinephrine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
are also synthesized using PLP-dependent enzymes.
DEFICIENCY: Severe deficiency of vitamin B6 is uncommon Abnormal electroencephalogram
(EEG) patterns have been noted in some studies of vitamin B6 deficiency. Other
neurologic symptoms noted in severe vitamin B6 deficiency include irritability,
depression, and confusion;
DISEASE PREVENTION: Cognitive function - A few recent studies have demonstrated
an association between declines in cognitive function or Alzheimer's
disease in the elderly and inadequate nutritional status of folic acid, vitamin
B12, and vitamin B6 and thus, elevated levels of homocysteine. One
observational study found higher plasma vitamin B6 levels to be associated with
better performance on two measures of memory, but unrelated to performance on
18 other cognitive tests. Depression - It has been suggested that vitamin
B-6 deficiency may lead to depression.
Reviewed by: James E. Leklem, Ph.D. Professor, Emeritus Department of Nutrition
and Food Management
Oregon State University
Vitamin
B12 is the largest and most complex of all the vitamins.
FUNCTION Cofactor for methionine synthase- Methylcobalamin is required for the
function of the folate-dependent enzyme, methionine synthase. This biochemical
reaction plays an important role in the production of energy from fats and proteins.
Succinyl CoA is also required for the synthesis of hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying
pigment in red blood cells.
Symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency:Vitamin B12 deficiency results in impairment
of the activities of B12-requiring enzymes. Impaired activity of methionine
synthase may result in elevated homocysteine levels, traps folate in a form
that is not usable by the body, resulting in symptoms of folate deficiency even
in the presence of adequate folate levels. Thus, in both folate and vitamin
B12 deficiency, folate is unavailable to participate in DNA synthesis. This
impairment of DNA synthesis affects the rapidly dividing cells of the bone marrow
earlier than other cells, resulting in the production of large, immature, hemoglobin-poor
red blood cells. The resulting anemia is known as megaloblastic anemia and is
the symptom for which the disease, pernicious anemia, was named.
Neurologic symptoms: The neurologic symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency
include memory loss, disorientation, and dementia, with or without mood changes.
Vitamin B12 deficiency is known to damage the myelin sheath covering
cranial, spinal, and peripheral nerves, the biochemical processes leading
to neurological damage in B12 deficiency are not well understood
Depression - Observational studies have found as many as 30% of patients
hospitalized for depression to be deficient in vitamin B12.
Reviewed by: Jeffrey Blumberg, Ph.D., F.A.C.N. Professor and Associate Director
Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging - Tufts University
Vitamins
B-6 and B-12. B vitamins' ability to lower homocysteine levels was demonstrated
in a battery of cognitive tests involving 70 male subjects from 54 to 81 years
of age. Low concentrations of vitamin B-6 and B-12 correlated
with a high concentration of homocysteine produced poor memory response.
High levels of vitamins B-6 and B-12 improved the performances on two measures
of memory.
A byproduct of the amino acid methionine, homocysteine attacks the epithelium,
the inner lining of blood vessels, causing lesions that trigger atherosclerosis.
This theory was advanced, first, in a study by biochemists Kilmer S. McCully
(see "NNFA Honors Pioneers," July 1998 BN) and R.B. Wilson in Atherosclerosis
and, since, by numerous other scientists.
Vitamin
B-12. Several studies indicate that a deficiency of vitamin B-12 can
undermine mental and emotional health, causing memory loss, difficulty in thinking,
confusion, delusions, depression, and hallucinations. This is actual]y
one of the most important nutrients for contributing to a sound and
dependable memory.
One of the researchers who has more recently elucidated the relationship
between memory loss and vitamin B-12 deficiency is John Lindenbaum, M.D.,
of New York's Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center.
Lindenbaum also found that a vitamin B-12 deficiency caused symptoms such
as dementia and various other neurological problems, tingling fingers and toes,
difficulties in walking, and fatigue.
Recent
studies now find an important role for B-12 in cognition. Cunha
and colleagues from Brazil administered B-12 to cobalamin-deficient patients
experiencing dementia. Those who fared the best on treatment, showing
notable improvement on mental state exam, were patients who succumbed to dementia
more recently -- within the last two years. Consequently, Cunha suggested
that B-12 screening would be a valuable tool in patients with recent changes
in mental performance. In an assessment of veterans, Bernard and associates
from the University of Oklahoma College of Medicine at Oklahoma City found
that veterans with subnormal B-12 blood levels experienced deficits
in cognitive performance.
Folic acid deficiency may result from dietary deficiency, physical or psychological
stress, excessive alcohol consumption, malabsorption or chronic diarrhea. Deficiency
may also occur during pregnancy or with the use of oral contraceptives, other
estrogen preparations or anticonvulsants. Psychiatric symptoms of folate
deficiency include depression, insomnia, anorexia, forgetfulness, hyperirritability,
apathy, fatigue and anxiety. Howard JS III. Folate deficiency in
psychiatric practice. Psychosomatics 1975;16:112-5.
The terms folic acid and folate are often used interchangeably for this water-soluble
B-complex vitamin. Folic acid, the most stable form, occurs rarely in foods
or the human body, but is the form most often used in vitamin supplements and
fortified foods. The only function of folate coenzymes in the body appears to
be mediating the transfer of one-carbon units Folate coenzymes act as acceptors
and donors of one-carbon units in a variety of reactions critical to the metabolism
of nucleic acids and amino acids.
Amino acid metabolism: Folate coenzymes are required for the metabolism of several
important amino acids. The synthesis of methionine from homocysteine requires
a folate coenzyme as well as a vitamin B12 dependent enzyme. Thus, folate deficiency
can result in decreased synthesis of methionine and a build up of homocysteine.
Nutrient interactions: Vitamin B12 and vitamin B6: The metabolism of homocysteine,
an intermediate in the metabolism of sulphur-containing amino acids, provides
an example of the interrelationships among nutrients necessary to optimize physiological
function and health. Thus, the amount of homocysteine in the blood is
regulated by three vitamins: folic acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6.
Deficiency:Causes: Folate deficiency occurs in a number of situations. For example,
low dietary intake and diminished absorption, as in alcoholism, can result in
a decreased supply of folate.
Alzheimer's disease and cognitive impairment The role of folate in nucleic
acid synthesis and methylation reactions is essential for normal brain function.
Over the past decade several investigators have described associations
between decreased folate levels and cognitive impairment in the elderly. In
the same study, low folate levels were associated with an increased
likelihood of short-term memory problems in elderly individuals who did not
show signs of dementia. Reviewed by: Barry Shane, Ph.D. Professor-
Department of Nutritional Sciences and Toxicology - University of California,
Berkeley
Folic acid is a coenzyme
that helps cells with the process of cell division and replication, and as such,
is most well known as the vitamin that prevents birth defects. Ebly and
colleagues at the University of Calgary in Alberta, Canada, discovered
that low blood levels of folate correlated to an increased likelihood
of stroke. Additionally, dementia and depression were associated
with those with low folate levels. The individuals who showed
cognitive impairment without dementia were prone to difficulties with short-term
memory.
Use of vitamin
E and vitamin C supplements in combination is associated with reduced
prevalence and incidence of Alzheimer Disease. Antioxidant supplements
merit further study as agents for the primary prevention of Alzheimer Disease.
The Cache County Study Arch Neurol. 2004;61:82-88.
A study among
a group of British senior citizens observed that the subgroup with the
worst vitamin-C status came out with the lowest score in a test in which the
cognitive performance was evaluated.
Furthermore the results showed that both a low score in this test and a bad
vitamin-C status were associated with increased mortality, in particular with
a higher risk of dying from an ischemic stroke. Cognitive impairment
and mortality in a cohort of elderly people; Gale CR et al. (MRC Environmental
Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital,
Southampton, UK); BMJ, 312(7031):608-611, 1996 March 9)
Among people aged 65 and
older, higher vitamin C and beta-carotene levels in the blood have been
associated with better memory performance. Perrig WJ, Perrig P,
Stahelin HB. The relation between antioxidants and memory performance in the
old and very old. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997;45(6):718–24.
The role of Vitamin C as a free radical scavenger was investigated by Riviere
and colleagues from the Hopital La Grave-Casselar in Toulouse, France. Finding
that regardless of the actual dietary intake through foods, actual blood
levels of vitamin C were depressed in individuals with Alzheimer's disease in
a manner reflective of the severity of the illness. Because actual
intake was not a relevant factor, this study confirms that free radicals cause
damage that results with in cognitive impairment. Indeed, dietary antioxidants
may serve a critical role in protecting against cognitive impairment associated
with aging.
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